I received some requests following yesterday's post so see some of the work that was mentioned so below are copies of the papers submitted by Grace Dixon and Natalie Elghossain. Enjoy!
Grace Nixon
April 13, 2009
Demography, Dr. Grindstaff
2nd Port Report
Death and Dying in AsiaWhile death and dying is certainly a universal topic, perhaps no region of the world has more varied beliefs and traditions from our western approach to the subject than Asia. Many of the countries that spanned the first half of this Semester at Sea voyage were greatly influenced by Islam and Christianity – two religions that indubitably have substantial histories, but which could be considered relatively “new” when viewed in comparison to Asian religions such as Buddhism or Hinduism. These ancient religions provide a sociological playground when examining rituals and traditions associated with death. With histories that span millennia, the countries of India, Vietnam, China, and Japan provide fascinating views into the means by which many Asians deal with the universal experience of death.
I. India The Hindu religion influences much of the country of India and thus guides most of the traditions surrounding death in this area of the world. The layers of Hinduism could fill multiple books – indeed, they have. As such, it would be impossible to use a few short paragraphs to fully cover all that is involved when a person of the Hindu religion dies – however, an overview can certainly be attempted.
According to Shaid, an undergraduate student from Chennai, a body is generally cremated upon death if the person belongs to a higher caste. However, burial is also accepted within Hinduism, particularly among those of lower castes in southern India. When someone dies, all the relatives are called and the body is taken from the house. Daughters are not allowed to see the corpse or the burning of the body once it leaves the home and is taken for cremation.
The cremation ceremony begins with a one rupee coin being placed on the middle of the deceased person’s forehead. The chief mourner, generally the eldest son, circles around the body three times. The son carries a bottle of water over his shoulder and every time he circles the body a hole is punctured in the bottle. On the third circling, the bottle is broken and the fire is lit. Bathing by the people in attendance must take place, along with the shaving of the men. Later, there is a gifting of a cow which may be symbolic or actual. If the body has been cremated and not buried, a bone-gathering ceremony takes place, the contents of which are eventually spread in a sacred river such as the Ganges.
The entire funereal process takes place over ten days – death and the crossover to ancestry is a tenuous transition and certain rituals must be performed in order to aid the soul in this journey. It is interesting to note that the belief in ancestors is held in conjunction with a belief in rebirth of the soul. As is noted by Religious Traditions of the World, there is a “sense that after three generations ancestors begin to dissolve into vaguer zones from which they are eventually reborn” (795). The many rites and rituals surrounding death in India almost serve as a mirror to the Hindu belief in the complex process that a soul undergoes as it transitions from life to death and into new life once again.
II. Vietnam Whereas Hinduism is the religion of the majority of people living in India, Buddhism takes center stage in Vietnam and directs many of the beliefs and traditions surrounding death. While both Hinduism and Buddhism subscribe to the belief in reincarnation, there are significant differences when it comes to rituals that are performed around a person’s death and beliefs that the living hold about the afterlife.
According to Hiep, a a tour guide for Destination Asia, ancestors in Vietnam are buried in the rice paddies under tombstones that all face one direction. The family comes once a week to pray for the ancestors’ intercession in asking for good crops. Thus, while the soul is reincarnated, it can still hear the prayers of the family.
In the villages, the belief in reincarnation is certainly present and is passed along through stories that are shared amongst the villagers. According to Quan Nguyen-Huy, a Bangkok tour guide who lives in the Mekong Delta region, there are reports in his village of children telling their parents that they contain the soul of the parent’s best friend, brother, or sister. They demand that the parents treat them well or buy them nice things since they hold the soul of someone who was loved and has died. Quan said that these children are five or six years-old, not yet old enough to be of the age of reason and manipulate information about reincarnation to work to their advantage. As evidenced by these accounts, Buddhist beliefs regarding the afterlife and reincarnation are not simply contained within books outlining the tenants of Buddhism – they truly are held by the people.
III.China Like Vietnam, the country of China is largely influenced by Buddhism. Much of the proceeding information regarding Chinese customs surrounding death, however, is not necessarily associated with any one religion but rather reflects the traditional, ancient Chinese belief systems.
Not surprisingly, many of these traditional Chinese rituals are conducted in the more rural areas of the country that have not been modernized to the same extent as most of China’s cities. When someone dies in rural China, at least 200 people gather at the family’s house. A monk says some prayers and then everyone eats. During this gathering, traditional Chinese music such as ancient Chinese opera is played or sung by performers who are brought into the home. This music may not be anything current-day or popular.
Following the meal, a procession to the burial ground takes place. There is a definite order to the procession – in the forefront ahead of the coffin are the people who chose the burial plot. The coffin is next in line, proceeded by the eldest son who carries a picture of the deceased. Next come the members of the close family to the deceased, all of whom wear large masks that cover their faces. These family members also carry walking sticks that are wrapped in beautiful white paper. They lean on these as they walk, symbolizing the fact that they are nearly immobilized by the immensity of their grief. In keeping with the great sadness that the family members have, they are supposed to weep loudly and cry out things such as, “Oh father, now that you are gone there is such a void in my life! How will I go on without you?” If a family member cannot bring himself or herself to weep, he or she will hire a professional mourner, a woman who can cry on command with great feeling.
Following the immediate family in the procession comes the rest of the people who have gathered for the funeral. Finally in the rear of all of the mourners comes a band of musicians playing sorrowful music. Everyone in the procession – from the people leading the throng to the person in the very rear – wears white which symbolized mourning in China.
Upon reaching the burial grounds, the body is buried and a group of people will bring small buckets of food to leave at the grave. This offering of food symbolizes the sustenance that the person will need in the next life. In addition to this custom at the time of death, there is also a yearly festival occurring in April in which offerings are made for the deceased. This festival, called the Cleaning of the Tombs, consists of families going to their ancestors’ tombs; here they leave three cups of water and wine along with other useful items and money. Oftentimes, the money will be folded and arranged into some type of object like a house. The money is placed on the grave and burned in hopes that the ancestors will witness the regard that the living family members still hold for them and bless the family with good fortune.
The day following the burial, the friends and family gather again to partake in another meal and a hearty celebration. Just as happens for the initial lunch, musicians are brought in – this time, however, a popular band from the city is brought in and joyful, popular melodies are played.
Despite much of China’s modernization, the ancient rituals applying to some of life’s most significant and weighty moments are still alive and well throughout the nation.
IV.Japan While Japan is an incredibly modernized nation in many ways, its people still hold very traditional views that hearken back millennia. Interestingly though, according to Mayu Kanai, a college student from Tokyo, the Japanese’s rituals surrounding death are undergoing an interesting transition as they teeter between traditional practices and more western means of approaching death and dying.
Customarily, funerals in Japan occur within the home and are only intended for the close family. A Buddhist monk will come to the home and read prayers in front of the casket. Then each person present puts a flower into the casket before it is closed. The casket is then taken in a hearse to be cremated. This ceremony and the cremation occurs two days after the death. The bones are buried in the cemetery in the family tomb, underneath the family headstone. Wives are buried under the family stone of their husbands.
Forty days after the death, the family prays again because the soul must be sent up to heaven. Mayu mentioned that the Shinto religion (which, along with Buddhism, predominates in Japan despite the small numbers of people who actively subscribe to either) teaches the concept of heaven and hell. Mayu also mentioned that the Japanese traditionally believe that a soul behave differently depending on the type of death that a person underwent. If the person did not die a peaceful death, his or her ghost may remain on earth seeking revenge. In such a case, it would require the help of a mediator to send the soul up to heaven.
While traditional ideas surrounding death undeniably still exist in Japan, western means of approaching this event have started to take hold more and more. One such example can be seen in regards to the deceased being buried in the family tomb – Mayu explained that currently one would find only two or three generations being buried in the tomb with ancestors since people are gravitating towards being buried underneath their own stone. Similarly, while funerals were traditionally held in the home, the recent trend is for these ceremonies to take place in funeral homes. As is the case with living, breathing societies (particularly in our increasingly globalized world), traditions can morph and change as is evidenced through these trends in Japan.
V. Conclusion The countries of India, Vietnam, China, and Japan each bring a wealth of traditions revolving around death and a rich complexity of ideas regarding the role of ancestors, reincarnation, and the afterlife. In delving into such material, one is not only able to better understand core beliefs held by the people of these countries, but is also able to better understand the general cultures themselves.
Natalie Elghossain
Migration Around the World
Field Report #1
3/2/09
People Following JobsMigration, particularly at the international level, is undoubtedly a prevalent and pressing issue in today’s globalized world. Due to the significant impacts that migration has on both sending and receiving nations, it is important to understand the root causes of such frequent, widespread migration around the world. The push-pull theory characterizes the general dynamics of migration, whereby some people move because they are pushed out of their previous residence while others move because they are pulled or attracted elsewhere. Potential migrants tend to develop a cost-benefit analysis to help determine whether or not moving is the most advantageous decision. Research has shown that the desire to get ahead, particularly economically, has served as a significant and beneficial pull factor for many migrants, one that outweighs many of the costs associated with migration. Indeed, "if it is assumed that people spend much of their life pursuing various goals, then migration may be seen as a possible means--an implementing strategy--whereby a goal (such as more education, a better job, a nicer house, a more pleasant environment, and so on) might be attained" (Weeks Chapter 7, pg. 11).
From my own personal observations in Spain, Morocco, Namibia, and South Africa, it is apparent that a significant pull factor for many migrants is a job opportunity, one that is typically more desirable and more economically prosperous than what is being offered by the potential migrants’ current location. These observations are consistent with the Dual Labor Market Theory of International Migration, which separates the labor market into primary and secondary sectors. The following observations involve people in the secondary labor market, which is characterized by low wages, unstable working conditions, and lack of reasonable prospects for advancement. It appears that the people involved have been recruited passively into their jobs, through the diffusion of information that jobs are available. It can be argued, then, that "the flow of labor ought to be explained by a simple supply-and-demand model, with people moving from places where there aren’t enough jobs to places where there are jobs" (Weeks Chapter 7, pg. 22).
Although Spain has one of the largest immigrant populations in Europe, I did not come across any international migrants. In both the cities of Granada and Barcelona, I stumbled upon many international students who temporarily reside in Spain while they study abroad in the country, but because they have not permanently changed their place of residence, they represent mobility but not migration. I did, however, learn that Gorca, my walking tour guide in Barcelona, is an internal migrant of Spain. Gorca leads walking tours around the major metropolitan city of Barcelona multiple times a day and almost every day of the week. He originally comes from a small town outside of Barcelona but moved to the city about five years ago. He is extremely knowledgeable and passionate about the history and culture of Barcelona and found that he could share his knowledge with tourists in Barcelona where tourism is particularly fruitful. In this case, Gorca serves as an example of migration evolution, whereby the populations in many developed countries are largely urban based, and people are increasingly moving between and within urban places where jobs are plentiful.
Additionally, in Morocco, I found that I was unlikely to come across people who have immigrated into the country. Indeed, there is a large population of Moroccans who have emigrated from the country and have settled in Spain, and many people from Southern Africa travel through Morocco in order to ultimately reside in Spain. However, I did not meet a single person who was not a native of Morocco. Additionally, according to Nadia, a middle-aged Moroccan woman whom I stumbled upon at the train station in Casablanca, only a small number of Moroccans have traveled outside of the country. According to her, few in Morocco have the means or the opportunity to travel a significant distance within the country let alone outside of the country. Like Gorca, Nadia is a follower of the tourist industry, as she is a full-time tour guide for French and English tourists. The day I met her she was traveling to Marrakesh to conduct a pre-scheduled tour in the city, but she travels all over the country constantly, wherever her company sends her, in order to conduct tours. Although she symbolizes mobility only and not migration, her story is representative of the significant pull that a job can have on a person and, also, that the benefits of having a job, particularly for those in the secondary sector of the labor market, are very much worth the costs associated with travel.
Despite the relatively small, young population of Namibia, I met a handful of locals in Swakopmund who had immigrated to the country, all of whom migrated with the intention of obtaining a specific, more prosperous job. All of them had chosen Namibia because its gorgeous landscape attracts a growing amount of tourists, making it easier and more conducive for their particular lines of work. All three of my sand boarding instructors, Jay, Clayton and Heini, came to Namibia with the intention of teaching sand boarding on the largest sand dunes in the world. Clayton emigrated from neighboring South Africa, but Jay made the move all the way from Northern California in the United States, symbolizing a drastic, permanent change in residence for the sake of a desired job opportunity. Heini, a native of Namibia, moved to Kenya for a while to work in the sporting industry (other than sand boarding), but was recently pulled back into Namibia when a friend told him about the good money that can be made as a sand boarding instructor in Namibia. Similarly, when I asked Lawrence, our hot air balloon conductor who is originally from Kenya, “What brought you to Namibia?” he replied explicitly, “Hot air ballooning.” Lawrence has been an international migrant for much of his life, as he has lived in Kenya, Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe, Germany, the U.S., and, finally, Namibia. He received his licenses as a pilot and as a hot air balloon conductor in California, where he worked for a few years as a pilot. He later developed a passion for hot air balloons, and once he discovered how wonderful hot air ballooning can be in Namibia, particularly in Swakopmund where he monopolizes the industry, he moved to Namibia and brought his wife along with him. Therefore, Lawrence also clearly demonstrates the concept that "people migrate for job-related reasons and then, very often, their family members follow them in a pattern of chain migration that involves family reunification" (Weeks Chapter 7, pg 22).
Although South Africa is often referred to as “the world in one country” because of its vastly diverse population, a large amount of whom are immigrants, South Africa is also currently suffering from the so-called “brain drain.” During my FDP with Professor Strouse to Plumstead High School in Cape Town, I talked with a math teacher, whose name I have regrettably forgotten, who had only recently returned to Cape Town to teach after many years of teaching in Kuwait. She is a native of Cape Town, where she originally began teaching, but she was lured many years ago to teach in Kuwait where teachers are better compensated. According to her, she has returned to Cape Town because of family issues, but she made it seem as though she would have stayed in Kuwait otherwise because the socioeconomic opportunities for teachers are greater. She noted that there is a common problem in South Africa with many other well-educated teachers leaving the country because they are not nearly as valued or as compensated as they should be or as teachers are in other places around the world. In this case, emigration of well-educated South Africans is detrimental to society, particularly when it includes teachers because they are responsible for educating the rest of the population.
In conclusion, these several cases based on informal observations all exemplify the significance of the job market as a pull factor for both internal and international migration.
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